The practice of severed heads in the Iberian world during the Iron Age represents a fascinating and unique element of funerary rituals. Although cremation was the predominant burial practice, the display of severed heads has captivated archaeologists due to the complex social, cultural, and symbolic meanings they convey. Limited archaeological records and the challenge of interpreting ancient rituals have spurred debates about the role of these skulls, the individuals they represented, and the broader implications for understanding Iberian society. Recent advancements in bioarchaeology and isotope analysis have provided significant new insights, allowing researchers to uncover the mobility patterns and cultural contexts surrounding these ritual practices.
The Practice of Nailed Heads: A Symbol of Power or Reverence?
In some Iberian communities, severed heads were subjected to post-mortem treatment, often nailed or mounted for public exhibition. This practice varied across different settlements in the northeastern Iberian Peninsula, suggesting diverse symbolic and cultural interpretations. At sites such as Puig Castellar and Ullastret, researchers have uncovered numerous skulls with signs of nailing, and some even preserved iron nails still embedded in the bone. These remains present a rare opportunity to explore the social and cultural landscape of ancient Iberia, especially given the paucity of written records and the widespread use of cremation as the primary burial method.
One of the central questions surrounding these severed heads is the purpose behind their display. Were these skulls war trophies intended to intimidate enemies, or were they venerated relics of respected individuals within the community? Archaeologists have long debated these possibilities based on oral traditions and ethnographic analogies. However, a deeper analysis of the relationship between these communities and the land they inhabited has led to new interpretations.
A study led by the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) has offered a fresh perspective on the severed head ritual, focusing on the mobility patterns of individuals whose skulls were used in these practices. The research team analyzed seven nailed skulls from Puig Castellar and Ullastret, two prominent Iron Age sites, and concluded that the selection of individuals for this ritual was neither random nor uniform. Instead, the ritual seemed to serve different purposes depending on the location and context, suggesting that the “nailed heads” were not a monolithic cultural expression but rather a practice that could vary across settlements.
Methodology: Isotope Analysis and Bioarchaeology
To investigate the mobility patterns of these individuals, the research team employed stable isotope analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes found in the dental enamel of the skulls. This technique allows researchers to trace the geographical origins of individuals by comparing the isotopic composition of their teeth with the local environmental isotopic signature. The study also incorporated archaeozoological data, which helped to shed light on the resource management practices of the communities involved.
The team focused on comparing the isotopic data from the skulls to the bioavailable strontium in the sediment and vegetation surrounding the sites. By establishing local reference ranges for the isotopes in the vicinity of Puig Castellar and Ullastret, the researchers could discern whether the individuals came from local or distant regions. The results were striking and revealed important differences between the two sites.
Results: Evidence of Diverse Origins
The isotope analysis provided direct evidence of the mobility patterns of the individuals whose skulls were displayed in the nailed head rituals. At Puig Castellar, three of the four skulls analyzed showed significant differences in their isotopic composition compared to the local reference range. This suggests that these individuals were likely not from the local community, challenging the assumption that the severed heads were solely those of local elites or venerated individuals. This discovery led the researchers to propose that the skulls at Puig Castellar may have been used to demonstrate power, coercion, or even intimidation, both within the community and toward outsiders.
In contrast, the site of Ullastret presented a more complex picture. The isotope analysis revealed a mixture of local and non-local individuals. This finding suggests that the practice of severed heads was applied differently at Ullastret, with some skulls representing local individuals who may have been venerated, while others may have been brought from outside the community as trophies of war or symbols of conquest. Notably, one skull from Ullastret, which showed signs of being non-local, was found in an external wall of the settlement, which could support the theory that it was displayed as a war trophy.
These findings suggest that the cultural and symbolic meaning of the severed heads was not uniform across Iberian settlements. Instead, it varied according to local contexts and the social dynamics of each community.
Cultural Context: The Display of Power and Veneration
The way in which severed heads were displayed also varied between the two sites. At Puig Castellar, the skulls were exposed on a wall, likely as a public display of power and dominance. This setting could indicate that the skulls were intended to serve as a symbol of coercion and intimidation, potentially aimed at both internal control and external threats. The positioning of the skulls in such a visible area suggests that their display had a strategic purpose, perhaps related to territoriality, social control, or political dominance.
In contrast, at Ullastret, the skulls of two local individuals were found in the street, near what appears to have been a residential area. This placement could imply that the skulls were not meant to intimidate, but rather to venerate the individuals they belonged to. It is possible that these individuals held significant social or political roles within the community and their display was a form of posthumous honor. The local population might have regarded these skulls as relics of revered ancestors or leaders, whose memory was preserved and respected after death.
The differing practices at the two sites indicate that the ritual use of severed heads was shaped by the specific cultural and social dynamics of each community. While the practice of nailing and displaying skulls was common, its meaning and function were not universal. The use of heads as symbols of power, intimidation, or reverence demonstrates the flexibility of the ritual and its adaptability to different social contexts.
Implications for Understanding Iberian Society
This study provides important new insights into the social structure, cultural practices, and territorial dynamics of Iberian communities during the Iron Age. The mobility patterns revealed by isotope analysis suggest that these societies were more complex and interconnected than previously thought. The presence of non-local individuals in the nailed head rituals may indicate that these communities had ties to broader networks of trade, warfare, and political alliances, which influenced the selection of individuals for ritual display.
Furthermore, the study highlights the significance of combining bioarchaeological and isotopic data to uncover the social and cultural context of ancient societies. By analyzing the mobility patterns of individuals, researchers can better understand the dynamics of migration, territoriality, and social stratification in ancient communities. This research also opens the door for future studies on the role of severed heads in other Iberian sites and beyond, potentially contributing to the creation of a Catalan map of bioavailable strontium, which could be a valuable tool for future archaeologists studying mobility in the region.
Conclusion: The Complexity of Severed Head Rituals
The display of severed heads in the Iberian world was not a simple or uniform practice. Rather, it was a complex ritual with multiple meanings, depending on the context in which it was performed. Whether as a symbol of power, a veneration of local elites, or a demonstration of territorial conquest, the nailed heads found at Puig Castellar and Ullastret offer a unique window into the social, cultural, and political dynamics of Iron Age Iberian communities.
By integrating modern bioarchaeological techniques with traditional archaeological methods, this study has provided valuable new insights into the ancient practices of the Iberian world. It challenges previous assumptions about the uniformity of ritual practices and highlights the importance of understanding the mobility, identity, and social structures of past societies. Through ongoing research and analysis, the mysteries surrounding the severed heads of the Iberian Iron Age may continue to reveal their complex and multifaceted role in shaping the ancient world.
More information: Rubén de la Fuente-Seoane et al, Territorialisation and human mobility during the Iron Age in NE Iberia: An approach through Isotope Analyses of the Severed Heads from Puig Castellar (Barcelona, Spain) and Ullastret (Girona, Spain), Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2025.105035